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Chemistry, manufacture and applications of natural rubber
Chemistry, Manufacture and Applications of Natural Rubber, Second Edition presents the latest advances in the processing, properties and advanced applications of natural rubber (NR), drawing on state-of-the-art research in the field. Chapters cover manufacturing, processing and properties of natural rubber, describing biosynthesis, vulcanization for improved performance, strain-induced crystallization, self-reinforcement, rheology and mechanochemistry for processing, computer simulation of properties, scattering techniques and stabilizing agents. Applications covered include natural rubber, carbon allotropes, eco-friendly soft bio-composites using NR matrices and marine products, the use of NR for high functionality such as shape memory, NR for the tire industry, and natural rubber latex with advanced applications. This is an essential resource for academic researchers, scientists and (post)graduate students in rubber science, polymer science, materials science and engineering, and chemistry. In industry, this book enables professionals, R & D, and producers across the natural rubber, tire, rubber and elastomer industries, as well as across industries looking to use natural rubber products, to understand and utilize natural rubber for cutting-edge applications.
Front Cover -- Chemistry, Manufacture, and Applications of Natural Rubber -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- List of contributors -- Preface -- One. Manufacturing, processing and properties of natural rubber -- 1 Chemical fundamentals relevant to natural rubber -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Natural rubber is uniquely self-reinforcing -- 1.3 Chemical structure and molar mass of natural rubber -- 1.4 Stereo-regularity and monomeric sequence distribution -- 1.5 Template crystallization: origin of the self-reinforcing ability of natural rubber -- 1.6 Concluding remarks -- References -- 2 Commonalities and complexities in rubber biosynthesis -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.1.1 The importance of natural rubber -- 2.1.2 Alternate rubber production -- 2.2 Rubber biosynthesis -- 2.2.1 Overview -- 2.2.2 Rubber particles and rubber biosynthesis -- 2.2.3 Kinetic analyses of rubber transferase -- 2.2.4 Regulation of biosynthetic rate -- 2.2.4.1 Allylic and nonallylic pyrophosphates -- 2.2.4.2 Allylic pyrophosphate isomers -- 2.2.4.3 Role of cofactor/activator -- 2.2.4.4 Initiator-dependent and independent polymerization -- 2.2.5 Regulation of molecular weight -- 2.3 Identification and purification of rubber transferase -- 2.3.1 Rubber transferase protein complex -- 2.4 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 3 New insight into the vulcanization mechanism of natural rubber -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 A novel intermediate of dinuclear bridging bidentate zinc/stearate complex -- 3.3 A new vulcanization mechanism via dinuclear bridging bidentate zinc/stearate complexes -- 3.3.1 Hydrolysis reaction of N-(1, 3-benzothiazol-2-ylsulfanyl)cyclohexanamine -- 3.3.2 Sulfur insertion reaction to intermediate II -- 3.3.3 Sulfur cross-linking reaction of isoprene rubber -- 3.4 In situ variation of intermediates in the new vulcanization mechanism.
3.5 Effect of fatty acids on the N-(1, 3-benzothiazol-2-ylsulfanyl)cyclohexanamine-accelerated vulcanization of isoprene ru... -- 3.6 Concluding remarks -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 4 Role of theoretical chemistry in elucidating rubber vulcanization mechanism -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 From Schrödinger equation to molecular orbital method -- 4.3 Handling electron correlation and brief history of density functional theory -- 4.4 Typical applications of molecular orbital and density functional theory methods -- 4.5 Application to rubber systems -- 4.5.1 Mechanism of generation of intermediate II -- 4.5.2 Formation of intermediate V by interactions of intermediate II and sulfur (S8) -- 4.5.3 Formation of intermediate VII by interactions of intermediate V and isoprene -- 4.6 Concluding remarks -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Appendix -- 5 Structure of natural rubber as revealed by X-ray and neutron scattering -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Theoretical background -- 5.2.1 The basics of scattering experiment -- 5.2.2 X-ray scattering -- 5.2.3 Neutron scattering -- 5.2.4 Scattering from crystalline versus amorphous materials -- 5.2.5 Wide-, small-, and ultrasmall-angle scattering -- 5.3 Structure of unfilled NR -- 5.3.1 Amorphous NR -- 5.3.2 NR with strain-induced crystallization -- 5.3.3 NR with temperature-induced crystallization -- 5.4 Structure of NR nanocomposites -- 5.4.1 Small-angle scattering from NR nanocomposites -- 5.4.2 Nanocomposites with particulate structure -- 5.4.3 Nanocomposites with hierarchical structure -- 5.5 Structure of swollen NR: visualization-by-swelling -- 5.6 Future trends -- References -- 6 Mechanochemistry of natural rubber during processing -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Agglomerate network structure -- 6.3 Mechanochemical reaction -- 6.4 A method to detect chain scission in gel-containing compounds.
6.5 Sol-gel analysis with carbon black-filled compounds -- 6.6 Processes of chain scission and bound rubber formation in mixing filled compounds -- 6.7 Relationship among mechanochemistry, mixing mechanism, and agglomerate structure -- 6.8 Summary -- References -- Two. Applications of natural rubber -- 7 Properties of natural rubbers from guayule and rubber dandelion -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 The promising alternative natural rubber resources -- 7.2.1 Guayule -- 7.2.1.1 Rubber extraction procedures and extractable nonrubber components -- 7.2.1.2 Development of high-value-added products from nonrubber components and bio-bagasse -- 7.2.1.3 Hypoallergenic properties and related topics -- 7.2.1.4 Vulcanization and mechanical properties -- 7.2.2 Rubber dandelion -- 7.2.2.1 Rubber extraction procedures and extractable nonrubber components -- 7.2.2.2 Hypoallergenic properties and related topics -- 7.3 Strain-induced crystallization of guayule and dandelion natural rubbers -- 7.4 The limitation and prospect of guayule and dandelion natural rubbers -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 8 Utilization of carbon allotropes with special reference to carbon nanotubes and graphene for the high performance of natu... -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.1.1 Allotropes of carbon -- 8.1.1.1 Diamond -- 8.1.1.2 Graphite -- 8.1.1.3 Graphene -- 8.1.1.4 Lonsdaleite -- 8.1.1.5 Fullerene -- 8.1.1.6 Amorphous carbon -- 8.2 Carbon nanotubes -- 8.2.1 Modification and dispersion of carbon nanotubes -- 8.2.1.1 Covalent modification of CNTs -- 8.2.1.2 Noncovalent modification of CNTs -- 8.3 Natural rubber/carbon nanotube composites -- 8.3.1 Fabrication of natural rubber/carbon nanotube nanocomposites -- 8.3.1.1 Solution mixing -- 8.3.1.2 Spray drying -- 8.3.1.3 Melt blending -- 8.3.1.4 Latex stage compounding -- 8.3.2 Natural rubber latex/carbon nanotube composites.
8.3.3 Natural rubber/modified carbon nanotube composites -- 8.3.4 Modified natural rubber/carbon nanotube composites -- 8.3.5 Natural rubber/carbon nanotube composites with segregated network -- 8.3.5.1 State of dispersion of carbon nanotubes in natural rubber/carbon nanotube composites -- 8.3.6 Mechanical properties -- 8.3.7 Electrical properties -- 8.3.8 Dielectric properties -- 8.3.9 Thermal conductivity and thermal stability -- 8.4 Natural rubber/graphene composites -- 8.4.1 Bionanocomposites of graphene -- 8.4.2 Anti-aging of natural rubber/graphene nanocomposites -- 8.4.3 Thermal conductivity of natural rubber-graphene composites -- 8.4.4 Electrical conductivity of graphene-natural rubber nanocomposite -- 8.5 Applications of natural rubber/carbon nanotube and natural rubber/graphene composites -- 8.6 Conclusion -- References -- 9 Natural rubber and epoxidized natural rubber in combination with silica fillers for low rolling resistance tires -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.1.1 Natural rubber as renewable and sustainable material -- 9.1.2 Development and challenges of silica technology in tire applications -- 9.1.3 State-of-the-art coupling technology for silica-based compounds -- 9.1.3.1 Mechanistic aspects of silane coupling agent -- 9.1.3.2 Development of silane coupling agents -- 9.1.3.3 Adequate mixing conditions for silica/silane-filled rubber compounds -- 9.1.4 Evolution of silica reinforcement in tires based on epoxidized natural rubbers -- 9.2 Silica-reinforced conventional natural rubber compounds -- 9.2.1 Aspects of mixing conditions -- 9.2.1.1 Compound viscosities during mixing and after the final mixing stage -- 9.2.1.2 Optimizing filler-rubber and filler-filler interactions -- 9.2.1.3 Influence of mixing conditions on final vulcanizates -- 9.2.2 Competitive reactions between silanization, coupling, and degradation.
9.2.3 Key compound ingredients -- 9.2.3.1 Tetrasulfide versus disulfide silane coupling agents -- 9.2.3.2 Effect of diphenylguanidine contents as secondary accelerator -- 9.2.3.3 Different types of silica -- 9.2.4 Mechanistic aspects of silane modifiers -- 9.3 Epoxidized natural rubber as raw material for tire tread compounds -- 9.3.1 Influences of expoxidation degrees and silane coupling agent contents -- 9.3.2 Verification of the interactions between epoxidized natural rubber, silica, and silane -- 9.3.3 Factors affecting compound viscosity and reinforcement mechanism -- 9.4 Compatibilizing silica-filled natural rubber systems by epoxidized natural rubbers -- 9.4.1 Optimized epoxide content of epoxidized natural rubber used as compatibilizer -- 9.4.2 Evidence of interactions from FTIR spectra -- 9.4.3 Hybridization of silane coupling agent and epoxidized natural rubber -- 9.4.4 Suitable silane coupling agents as cocompatibilizers with epoxidized natural rubber -- 9.4.5 Use of epoxidized low molecular weight natural rubber -- 9.5 Summary -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 10 Fundamentals and recent applications of natural rubber latex in dipping technology -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Objectives -- 10.3 Fresh field latex from Hevea brasiliensis trees -- 10.4 Mechanistic and structural role of ammonia in lipid hydrolysis of natural rubber latex -- 10.5 Role of proteins and lipids in surface microstructures of natural rubber latex particles -- 10.5.1 Rubber molecules and polyisoprene core -- 10.5.2 Surface proteins and lipids and latex protein allergy -- 10.5.3 Surface microstructure by electron microscopy -- 10.5.4 Surface microstructure by electrophoretic studies -- 10.5.5 Surface microstructure by atomic force microscopy -- 10.5.6 Surface microstructures of small rubber particles and large rubber particles.
Includes bibliographical references and index.